Third-Gender Types: Vedic and Modern

By Amara Das Wilhelm

The essential criterion of a third-gender person is that he or she is impotent with the opposite sex, whether in terms of desire, performance or fertility.  A first-gender male has XY chromosomes, male anatomy and male gender identity; he desires and successfully mates with women.  A second-gender female has XX chromosomes, female anatomy and female gender identity; she desires and successfully mates with men.  Any variation from these two standard models resulting in a lack of potency with the opposite sex constitutes the third or neutral gender.

Third-gender types are twofold: inborn and acquired.  The inborn types (tritiya-prakriti) are life-long and refer to people who are gender-variant by nature (bisexuals, homosexuals, transgenders and the intersexed).  The acquired types refer to people who become impotent later on in life due to external factors.  These can be psychological (caused by stress, shyness, anxiety, etc.), physical (due to disease, injury, medical afflictions, old age, and so on) or supernatural.  The supernatural types are specifically Vedic and involve impotency caused by the curse of a powerful demigod or guru.

Sex and gender fall on a spectrum and therefore any of the third-gender types listed below can and often do overlap.  Additionally, people who are third gender by nature may sometimes have children (such as bisexual men or lesbians) whereas people who are first or second gender by nature may sometimes choose not to reproduce (for religious or personal reasons).  In such instances, the former types are third gender by nature but not in social terms and vice versa for the latter.

Vedic Types

The third-gender types listed below are found here and there throughout the Vedic canon.  The first six are general or “umbrella” terms that include any of the more specific varieties mentioned further down the list.  These general terms appear more frequently in Sanskrit literature and allude to the importance of sexual potency and marriageable status in Vedic times.

Vedic third-gender types include people we identify today as homosexuals, transgenders, bisexuals, asexuals, the intersexed and people who are otherwise impotent with the opposite sex for a variety of psychological, physical or even supernatural factors.  Third-gender women are mentioned less frequently in Vedic literature and consequently most of the terms listed below apply specifically to men.                  

Napumsaka:  The word napums or napumsaka is the most common third-gender term found in Vedic texts.  It refers to those who are “not fully male” and typically describes men who are effeminate or of questionable manhood.  In his Jayamangala commentary, Yashodhara states that the homosexual men described in the Kama Sutra as tritiya-prakriti are also known as napumsaka. 

Sandha:  The term sandha or sandhaka is also commonly found in Vedic literature and describes third-gender men who are “half man, half woman.”  Sandha can refer to any type of impotent man (twenty types are listed) but often specifically describes transgenders.  Both the SushrutaSamhita (3.2.42) and Vacaspati’s fourteenth-century Smriti-ratnavali state that the sandha talks, walks, laughs and otherwise behaves as a woman.  The latter text also mentions that such men sometimes castrate themselves.  The sandha is not considered curable or marriageable for any girl.

Kliba:  The word kliba or klibaka is another third-gender term commonly found in Vedic texts.  It can refer to any type of impotent man but often specifically describes those who are intersexed, without sex organs, sterile, or sexually dysfunctional in some way.   Kliba is also commonly used to disparage men considered weak, cowardly, unmanly, effeminate, of questionable manhood, and so on.

Panda:  The term panda or pandaka refers to many different types of impotent men.  It is especially used in the Narada-smriti, where it is divided into fourteen specific types.  The Smriti-ratnavali states that the foremost test of a pandaka involves a woman touching the man’s penis; if the organ does not respond, his impotency is ascertained.  The panda type may be physically or psychologically impotent, or he may be a homosexual; in any case, such an unresponsive male is not considered marriageable.

Nastriya:  The term nastriya refers to women who are “not fully female.”  It often describes those who are barren and infertile but can also refer to masculine-type lesbians and female-to-male transgenders.  Four basic types of nastriya are mentioned in Vedic texts: 1) women who do not menstruate; 2) women without a vulva; 3) women with both male and female anatomy, and 4) women behaving as men.

Svairini:  The word svairini is the most common term used for homosexual women in the Kama Shastra but can refer to any type of “independent woman” whatsoever (not only lesbians).  The Narada-smriti (12.49-52) mentions four types: 1) the wife who leaves her husband; 2) the widow who leaves her family; 3) the foreigner or slave, and 4) a woman who has been raped.    

Mukhebhaga:  The mukhebhaga type uses his mouth (mukhe) to receive the penis, just as a woman would use her vulva (bhaga).  This clearly refers to the homosexual and transgender men elaborated upon in the Kama Shastra.  Some commentators interpret this word to indicate men who are only aroused through oral intercourse.  In any case, the Narada-smriti (12.15) declares such men incurable and strictly forbids them from marrying women.

Asekya:  The asekya type is also clearly homosexual or transgender, aroused as he is only by swallowing the semen of other men.  The Smriti-ratnavali specifically uses the word “devour” to stress the man’s strong desire for such activity.  According to Tantric or Vedic occult science, this behavior is caused by a deficiency in maleness and is also mentioned in the SushrutaSamhita (3.2.38).  The asekya type is viewed exactly the same as the mukhebhaga in terms of curability and marriage.

Kumbhika:  The kumbhika type uses his buttocks (kumbha) to receive the penis.  This clearly refers to homosexuals or transgenders and is mentioned in the SushrutaSamhita.  Some commentators interpret this word to mean “men who are aroused only through anal intercourse.”  In any case, the kumbhika type is viewed exactly the same as the mukhebhaga in terms of curability and marriage.

Anyapati:  The anyapati type has sexual intercourse in ways other than with women and includes all varieties of psychological fetishes and sexual orientations.  Alternatively, some commentators interpret this word to mean that the man is deeply in love with another and thus potent only with him or her.  The former interpretation is more commonly accepted, however.  In any case, the anyapati type is not considered curable or marriageable by the Narada-smriti (12.18).

Paksa:  The paksa type is difficult to detect and interpreted variously.  The man is “half potent” (sometimes potent and sometimes not).  This can refer to bisexuals who are sometimes potent with women and sometimes with men, or to those whose sexual potency otherwise comes and goes.  A few commentators interpret this word literally, meaning that the man is impotent “every other fortnight.”  In any case, the Narada-smriti (12.14) states that a paksa should be retested after one month; if he is still impotent, he cannot be married to the girl.

Irsyaka:  The irsyaka type becomes potent only when jealous feelings arise in him after seeing the woman with another man; he is then able to perform.  His sexual potency depends on jealous or sometimes even angry feelings.  This type is clearly psychological and, according to the Narada-smriti (12.15), incurable; such men should never be married to any girl.

Kilaka:  The kilaka type is similar to the irsyaka but opposite in emotion.  The man enjoys seeing the woman with other men and is brought to sexual potency only by uniting together with them.  There is no jealousy or anger whatsoever and bisexual attraction is often indicated.  The kilaka should be retested after one month.  If he remains potent only with the man and woman together, he should not be married.

Sevyaka:  The sevyaka’s potency is lost because of having too much sex with women.  This type of impotency is usually physical but can also refer to bisexual men who, after quenching their desire for women, turn to men.  Indeed, many commentators such as Bhavasvamin interpret this word simply as “homosexual.”  In any case, the Narada-smriti (12.15) states that the sevyaka type is incurable and can never be married to any woman.

Saugandhika:  The saugandhika type is aroused only through smelling the male or female sex organs and coming in very close contact with them.  This condition may be physical (involving sex pheromones) or psychological and is mentioned in the Sushruta Samhita.  It is similar to the sevyaka type in that it is typically caused by excessive sexual relations.  The saugandhika is viewed exactly as the sevyaka in terms of curability and marriage.

Moghabija:  The moghabija type becomes impotent or “baffled” when he attempts to unite with the woman.  This may be due to psychological factors such as inexperience and self-consciousness or the man may be secretly homosexual.  Some commentators interpret moghabija to mean that the man’s semen is “baffled” and thus ineffective in the womb (making him sterile).  The first interpretation is more likely, however, since the moghabija type is considered curable and may be retested after one year (Narada-smriti 12.16).

Salina:  In the case of the salina type, the man cannot even attempt intercourse with the woman due to excessive shyness.  This is clearly psychological unless he is secretly homosexual.  The woman is encouraged to try arousing the salina by all possible means; if she cannot get him to unite with her after one year, he should be abandoned (Narada-smriti 12.17).

Aksipta:  The aksipta type does not discharge his semen properly.  There may be premature ejaculation or the ejaculation is too slow and difficult.  The semen may also appear watery or deficient in quantity.  The former type is psychological whereas the latter, physical in origin.  Some commentators translate aksipta to mean that the man is unable to ejaculate at all.  In any case, the aksipta type should be retested after one year; if he remains impotent, he cannot be married to the girl (Narada-smriti 12.16).

Vataretas:  Literally, “wind or air semen.”  The man achieves an erection and reaches orgasm but there is no emission of semen (only air).  This is a physical condition commonly known as “dry orgasm” or “retrograde ejaculation”.  Alternatively, some commentators interpret vataretas as a man having premature ejaculation (the semen is “lost to the wind.”)  This is less likely, however, since the vataretas type is considered incurable (Narada-smriti 12.15) and forbidden to marry women under all circumstances.

Stabdha:  The man’s penis is completely lifeless, with no sign of arousal or seminal fluid.  This generally indicates a serious physical condition that cannot be cured.  Surely, the stabdha type cannot be married to any girl.

Nisarga:  The nisarga type refers to infants recognized as impotent at birth, i.e., those born with absent or unusually formed genitals due to intersex causes.  The term nisarga implies something that is distorted by nature.  Such third-gender types are not considered curable or fit for marriage according to the Narada-smriti (12.14).

Baddha and Vadhri:  These two types of third-gender men have no testicles or the testicles have been cut out.  They include men born without testicles, the intersexed, transgenders who have been castrated, men who have had their testicles injured or removed for medical reasons, and so on.  Both the baddha and vadhri types are considered incurable and unfit for marriage according to the Narada-smriti (12.14).

Nasta and Rogat:  The nasta and rogat types refer to men who were previously virile but are now physically diseased and consequently impotent.  The affliction may be temporary or permanent in nature and requires further analysis.  Both types should be retested after one year; if the man remains impotent, he cannot be married to the girl (Narada-smriti 12.14).

Sapadi, Abhisapad-guroh and Deva-krodhat:  These three types of third-gender men are impotent due to a curse, the guru’s imprecation or a god’s anger and clearly belong to the supernatural variety.  According to the Narada-smriti (12.14), such men should be tested one year after the curse has taken effect; if they are still impotent, they cannot be married.

Vedic Impotency Tests

Vedic testing for male impotence involves four basic steps: 1) an overall physical examination of the boy; 2) a thorough study of his interaction with women; 3) urination testing, and 4) an examination of his stools.  There are different versions of this test but a general description is as follows:

When the parents of any girl about to be married have doubts regarding the groom’s maleness, they hire a respected physician to thoroughly examine the boy.  The physician checks for masculine features such as a strong back, neck, shoulders, arms, torso, thighs, etc. along with the presence of good knees, bones, hair and skin.  The penis, testicles, mouth and anus are also examined for unusual or defective signs and the boy’s gait, voice and mannerisms should all be distinctly masculine.  His urine must be clear and free from mucous while the stool should sink in water and be dark in color.

Once the physical examination has been passed, the boy is handed over to a professional courtesan who is thoroughly experienced, familiar with all types of men, learned in the Kama Shastra and accompanied by her retinue.  With the parents’ permission, she tests the boy’s erection along with his ability to penetrate and climax with any one of her girls.  After successfully completing the task, the boy’s stream of urination is examined and must be seen as noisy and foamy.  He is then declared fully virile to the parents and eligible to marry their daughter.

On the other hand, if the groom exhibits any sign of weakness or failure with the girl, the courtesan employs various methods to ascertain his exact type of impotency.  If she suspects he may be a homosexual, she calls in a professional male prostitute to further test the boy.  If she suspects a physical condition or disease, the physician is called back in.  Based upon their findings, the courtesan declares the groom either hopelessly impotent with women or suggests retesting him after a certain period of time.

Modern Types

Modern cultures no longer accommodate any notion of a third-gender category or nonreproductive class.  Nevertheless, various conditions of male and female infertility as well as natural variations in sex, sexual orientation and gender identity have all been recognized and well studied within the bounds of contemporary science.  Despite the gaps in time, culture and terminology, the types listed below correspond rather well to their Vedic counterparts.  The only types of impotency not recognized by modern science are those caused by curses or divine beings (the supernatural types).

Neurological Types:  Variations in sex and gender are not only anatomical.  In fact, a majority of cases are neurological in origin and affect people who are otherwise normal in terms of their male or female appearance.  Since hormones can drastically alter a person’s physical sex anatomy in the womb there is no reason to doubt they can also alter one’s neurological sex and brain wiring.  Thus, homosexual attraction and transgender identity are not simply matters of psychological preference.  A left-handed person does not simply “prefer” using his left hand over his right; rather, the brain has been neurologically wired that way since birth.  Similarly, modern scientific studies suggest that a person’s sexual orientation and gender identity are most likely neurologically determined during early fetal development.

Bisexuality (1 out of 5 persons):  Significant bisexuality occurs in about fifteen to twenty percent of the population and is the most common type of gender variation—nearly one out of every five adults experience some degree of bisexual attraction.  A bisexual person responds to the sex signaling of both genders and is consequently attracted to men and women alike, whether simultaneously or at different times in life.  Bisexuality is likely caused when the area of the fetal brain governing sexual orientation is not entirely masculinized (in males) or feminized (in females).  It is also somewhat more common in women.  Bisexuals who marry the opposite sex and bear children comprise the majority and typically identify as heterosexual.  Those primarily attracted to the same sex and identifying as gay or homosexual are less common.

Homosexuality (1 out of 20 persons):  Homosexuality occurs in about four to five percent of the population (nearly one out of every twenty adults) and is self-evident at puberty.  A complete homosexual responds only to the sex signaling of his or her same anatomical sex throughout life.  Homosexual orientation is likely caused when the area of the fetal brain governing sexual orientation is feminized (in boys) or masculinized (in girls).  It is somewhat more common in men and approximately three-quarters of homosexuals also exhibit some degree of transgender behavior.  Thus there are two basic types of homosexual men and women—those that are more masculine and those that are more feminine.  Homosexuals can and sometimes do have children although this is typically against their nature.  It should also be noted that of all third-gender types, homosexuals and transgenders stand out in terms of how they socialize and form distinct subcultures within society.  None of the other types do this to such an extent.

Transgender Identity (1 out of 3,000 persons):  Transgender identity occurs in approximately one out of every three thousand persons and can usually be recognized during early childhood.  A complete transgender identifies only as the opposite sex and typically lives and dresses accordingly.  Many undergo hormone treatments and transsexual operations.  Transgender identity is likely caused when the area of the fetal brain governing gender identity is feminized (in boys) or masculinized (in girls).  It is somewhat more common in anatomical males and approximately three-quarters of transgenders also have homosexual or bisexual orientation.  People with transgender identity can and sometimes do have children but only by means of their birth anatomy.  All transsexuals are sterile due to the sex-change operations they have undergone.

Psychological Types:  Sexual impotence due to psychological factors has been well studied in recent years and is usually treatable.  It accounts for approximately ten to twenty percent of all male impotency cases (the remaining eighty percent are physical or medical) and is addressed with a combination of psychotherapy and medication.  Some of the more common psychological types—found in both men and women—are caused by stress, self or interpersonal anxieties, shyness, feelings of inadequacy, depression, drug abuse, social alienation, fears caused by trauma, guilt associated with religious orthodoxy or parental expectations, uncertainty about one’s sexual orientation, unusual fetishes and so on.  Psychological conditions can and often do overlap with pre-existing physical or neurological ones.          

Physical Types:  Physical types of impotency and infertility involve men or women whose sex organs are damaged, diseased, dysfunctional or anatomically defective in some way.  Although many types are curable, others are not and approximately seven percent of all married couples are never able to have children.  The most common physical types are caused by reproductive disorders, organ diseases, spinal injuries, blood vessel problems, afflictions of the nervous system, tumors, surgical complications and so on.  They are treated in terms of the specific disorder.  Congenital or inborn types typically have intersex causes and are often apparent at birth; however, many are not identified until puberty or after adult fertility tests have been taken.

Minor Sex Anomalies (1 out of 500 persons):  Approximately one in every five hundred persons is born with sex anatomy that varies from the standard male or female type.  This includes conditions such as undescended testicles (one or both), minor cases of Hypospadias, Chordee (curvature of the penis) and Phimosis (constricted foreskin) in boys or slightly enlarged clitorises and mild cases of Late-Onset Adrenal Hyperplasia (LAH) in girls.  Roughly one in a thousand persons undergo minor surgery or medical treatment to normalize their genital appearance or functioning but otherwise go on to live ordinary lives.  Many but not all of these minor anomalies have intersex causes.

Hypospadias (1 out of 600 persons):  Hypospadias is one of the most common types of genital anomalies in males.  The pee-hole is located not at the tip of the penis but on the top or anywhere along the underside of the shaft, down to the very bottom.  In more pronounced but rare conditions the hole forms a large opening extending halfway down the penis.  Hypospadias occurs in approximately one out of every three hundred men but is extremely rare in women, where it occurs in only about one in 500,000.  The exact cause in most cases is unclear but can involve genetic, hormonal or even environmental factors.

Chromosomal Variations (1 out of 1,000 persons):  Many intersex conditions involve chromosomal variations.  Of these, Klinefelter Syndrome is the most common and occurs in approximately one out of every one thousand men.  Males with Klinefelter are sterile due to an extra X chromosome (XXY) in their body’s cells.  Their genitals are generally smaller and the ejaculate contains no sperm.  Some men experience breast development.  Another chromosomal variation, known as Turner Syndrome, occurs in approximately one out of every one thousand women.  Females with Turner are similarly smaller and sterile due to a missing X chromosome (XO).  In addition to these two syndromes, various mosaic intersex conditions also occur wherein a person has one type of chromosomes in some cells and a different type in others.  These are more rare and produce various kinds of intersex effects.

Mullerian or Vaginal Agenesis (MRKH Syndrome; 1 out of 6,000 persons):  In this condition the female organs do not finish their development in the womb for reasons yet unknown but which likely involve hormonal irregularities.  The woman’s uterus and vagina are absent, misshapen or small but her ovaries and fallopian tubes are normal and there is hormone production, breast development and so on.  The woman has no menstruation and cannot bear children; however, her eggs are viable and can usually be fertilized in vitro and carried to term by another.

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS; 1 out of 20,000 persons):  AIS is typically an inherited, genetic condition.  The XY male embryo is unable to respond to it’s own androgen hormones and thus develops along the female path.  Complete AIS infants appear externally as girls but have undescended testes and underdeveloped female organs inside.  They do not menstruate and are infertile.  Partial AIS cases also occur with various mixed intersex conditions but are more rare, occurring in approximately one out of every 130,000 persons.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH; 1 out of 36,000 persons):  CAH is a genetic variation that causes XX female fetuses to manufacture androgen-related hormones and develop along the male path.  XY male fetuses can also have CAH but it does not noticeably affect their development.  Girls with classical CAH are masculinized to various degrees and may have larger than average clitorises or even partially developed penises and scrotums, extra body hair, deep voices, prominent muscles and so on.  They often identify as male and desire women for partners.  A similar yet milder condition known as Late-Onset Adrenal Hyperplasia (LAH) affects approximately one in one hundred girls after birth (usually around puberty) and is characterized by severe acne, facial hair, balding, menstrual disturbances and infertility.

Chronic Intersex Conditions (1 out of 36,600 persons):  There are various chronic intersex conditions that are rare, idiopathic and result in absent or severely-deformed sex organs.  These include unusual cases of partial AIS or CAH, Aphallia (born without a penis), Clitoromegaly (severely enlarged clitoris), serious cases of Hypospadias, Micropenis (extremely small penis) and so on.  Most of these conditions are caused by hormonal irregularities in the womb.    

Ovotestes (1 out of 83,000 persons):  People born with this intersex condition, formerly known as “true hermaphroditism,” have gonads (sex glands) with both ovarian and testicular tissue.  This may be present in one or both of the gonads and the person may appear mostly normal or mixed in terms of gender and genital development.  Little is known about this rare form of intersex.

Gonadal Dysgenesis (1 out of 150,000 persons):  In this condition the gonads (as testes in males or ovaries in females) are completely undeveloped and dysfunctional, appearing as “streaks” in the abdominal cavity.  In XY males, Gonadal Dysgenesis is known as Swyer Syndrome.  All children born with this condition, whether XX or XY, appear as females and are sterile; they do not produce their own sex hormones or enter puberty.  Gonadal Dysgenesis can be partially corrected with hormone treatment but not in terms of bestowing fertility.

5-Alpha Reductase Deficiency (5-ARD; variable):  This genetic female-to-male intersex condition, formerly known as “pseudohermaphroditism,” is relatively common in certain isolated island and jungle regions of the world.  Infants born with this syndrome appear female at birth but mature into males at puberty, sometimes only partially.  Cultures familiar with this condition generally recognize it immediately upon birth.

Environmental and Pharmaceutical Causes (variable):  Certain environmental and pharmaceutical causes of intersex conditions have been observed and studied, particularly in regard to environmental estrogens and exogenous androgens such as progestin.  In these cases, fetal development is sufficiently altered so that XY infants appear female and XX infants appear male, to various degrees.

Modern Impotency Tests

Modern tests for impotence or infertility in both men and women are not generally administered prior to marriage but only when the problem arises.  In such cases, specialized physicians examine both the man and the woman and a cause is ascertained through various means of medical testing.  Fertility treatment, surgery and/or drugs are then applied.  Instances of male or female impotence due to psychological factors are examined and treated by professional psychiatrists.