Vedic Third-Gender Types and Terms
By Amara Das Wilhelm

The following Sanskrit lists from the Caraka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Sabda-kalpa-druma and Narada-smriti define various types of men who are impotent with women as described in Vedic literature.  These lists refute the common misconception held by some that words such as napumsa, kliba, etc. cannot refer to homosexuals.

The Eight Types of Napumsa

In a chapter of the Caraka Samhita (4.2) discussing embryological development and exceptional births, eight types of napumsa are listed and defined as follows:

1. Dviretas—he has both male and female “seed.”
2. Pavanendriya—he has no discharge of semen.
3. Samskaravahi—he is aroused according to previous life impressions.
4. Narashandha—his manhood is completely destroyed.
5. Narishandha—her womanhood is completely destroyed.
6. Vakri—his penis is severely curved or deformed.
7. Irshyabhirati—he is aroused only by the jealous feelings of seeing others in the act of sexual union.
8. Vatika—he is born without testicles.

The Caraka Samhita is an ancient Vedic medical text put into writing sometime around 200 B.C.  According to this text, all eight types of napumsa are produced by various factors such as previous life impressions, an equal “seed” conception, parental conditions and certain afflictions within the womb.  Two other types of napumsa are mentioned in Chapter 4.4: the varta, whose female “seed” is afflicted in utero, and the trnaputrika, whose male “seed” is similarly afflicted.  All ten types are described as inborn and incurable. According to Cakrapani Datta, an important eleventh-century A.D. commentator on the Caraka Samhita, the samskaravahi type includes the five kliba described by Sushruta and listed below.

The Five Types of Kliba

In a chapter of the Sushruta Samhita (3.2) discussing the conception of progeny, five types of kliba are listed and described as follows: 

1. Asekya—he is aroused only by swallowing a man’s semen.
2. Saugandhika—he is aroused only by smelling the genitals of others.
3. Kumbhika—he takes the passive role in anal sex.
4. Irshyaka—he is aroused only by the jealous feelings of seeing others in the act of sexual union.
5. Shandha—he has the qualities and behavior of a woman.

The Sushruta Samhita is an ancient Vedic medical text put into writing sometime around 600 B.C.  All five types of kliba are described as inborn, due to an equal “seed” conception caused by various conditions of the parents.  The Sushruta Samhita distinguishes the shandha from the other four in that the latter are said to possess semen and male characteristics whereas the shandha is completely devoid of these.  It also mentions that the first four types of kliba achieve erections through drinking the semen of other men (3.2.44-45) and describes a type of female shandha with the qualities of a man (3.2.43).  In the Sabda-kalpa-druma, the meaning of the word shandha is expanded into twenty different types and cited below.

The Twenty Types of Shandha

The following list from the Sabda-kalpa-druma Sanskrit-Sanskrit dictionary describes the twenty types of impotent men known in Sanskrit as shandha.  The key criterion of a shandha is that he is sexually impotent with women, whether in terms of desire, performance or fertility.  As evident from this list, a shandha can refer to many different types of men.  Some are impotent with women by nature (tritiya-prakriti) such as the intersexed, homosexuals and transgenders, while others are ordinary males who have lost their potency due to various physical or psychological afflictions.  The term shandha is therefore much more inclusive than widely believed and any surrounding context should be carefully considered whenever an interpretation is rendered.  Simplistic definitions such as “eunuch,” “neuter,” or “sexless” may not always be accurate and in many cases completely incorrect.

Under the entry shandha, the Sabda-kalpa-druma dictionary quotes the Narada-smriti, which lists fourteen different types of men who are impotent with women.  Then it quotes the Kamatantra, which lists twenty different kinds.  Then it quotes Vacaspati’s fourteenth-century A.D. Smriti-ratnavali wherein the twenty types of shandha are listed and defined as follows:

1. Nisarga—he is born without proper genitals.
2. Baddha—he has no testicles.
3. Paksha—he is periodically impotent with women (every other fortnight, month, etc.).
4. Kilaka—he penetrates the woman using another man or some instrument.
5. Sapadi—he is unable to enjoy sex due to the power of a curse.
6. Stabdha—his penis is paralyzed, with no sperm.
7. Irshyaka—he is aroused only by the jealous feelings of seeing others in the act of sexual union.
8. Sevyaka—he is sexually enjoyed by others.
9. Aksipta—his semen is deficient or does not discharge properly.
10. Moghabija—his attempts to unite with the woman are fruitless.
11. Salina—he is too shy or inhibited to even approach women.
12. Anyapati—he copulates with things or beings other than women.
13. Mukhebhaga—he performs oral sex on men.
14. Vataretas—he has no discharge of semen.
15. Kumbhika—he takes the passive role in anal sex.
16. Panda—his penis does not respond to (the woman’s) touch.
17. Nasta—he is without sperm due to disease.
18. Asekya—he is aroused only by swallowing a man’s semen.
19. Saugandhika—he is aroused only by smelling the genitals of others.
20. Shandha—he has the qualities of a woman; behaving and talking as they do, he may castrate himself.

The Smriti-ratnavali is a summary of Vedic law codes written by Ramanatha Vidya Vacaspati in the fourteenth century A.D.  Also known as the Daya Rahasya, this text is still recognized as an important law reference in many parts of Bengal.  The Sabda-kalpa-druma Sanskrit-Sanskrit dictionary, which quotes the Smriti-ratnavali in regard to the twenty types of shandha, was compiled in the early nineteenth century by a team of Bengali scholars under the commission of a local king named Raj Radhakantha Dev.  The well-known Sanskrit dictionaries we use today, such as the St. Petersburg (Bohtlingk) and Monier-Williams, relied heavily upon this text and would not even have been possible without it.  Typically, the European dictionaries edited, dismissed or perhaps misunderstood virtually all of the entries referring to homosexuality, due to the influence of their own Victorian culture.

Since the account in the Kamatantra ends by stating klibani vimsatih (these are the twenty klibas), the author takes kliba to be the same as shandha.  The eleventh-century lexicographer, Hemacandra, similarly equates shandha with napumsaka.  In other words, at least these writers believed that the words kliba and napumsaka could mean any of the things that the word shandha meant.  In his important twelfth-century commentary on the Kama Sutra known as Jayamangala, the great scholar, Yashodhara, states that the homosexual men described in the Kama Sutra as tritiya-prakriti are also known as napumsaka.  Similarly, the fourteen types of panda described in the Narada-smriti closely reflect those mentioned under shandha and are listed below.

The Fourteen Types of Panda

A fourth list of men who are impotent with women appears in the twelfth chapter of the Narada-smriti entitled “The Union of Woman and Man.”  Within that chapter, men who are unfit for marriage due to impotence (panda) are listed and defined as follows:

1. Nisarga—he is born without proper genitals.
2. Vadhri—his testicles have been cut out.
3. Paksha—he is periodically impotent with women (every other fortnight, month, etc.).
4. Abhisapad-guroh—he is impotent due to the guru’s curse.
5. Rogat—he is diseased (which may pass).
6. Deva-krodhat—he is impotent due to a god’s anger.
7. Irshyaka—he is aroused only by the jealous feelings of seeing others in the act of sexual union.
8. Sevyaka—he is sexually enjoyed by others.
9. Vataretas—he has no discharge of semen.
10. Mukhebhaga—he performs oral sex on men.
11. Aksipta—his semen is deficient or does not discharge properly.
12. Moghabija—his attempts to unite with the woman are fruitless.
13. Salina—he is too shy or inhibited to even approach women.
14. Anyapati—he copulates with things or beings other than women.

The Narada-smriti is a Dharma Shastra text put into writing sometime before the first century B.C.  Of the fourteen types of panda listed, the Narada-smriti (12.14-18) declares the following seven as incurable and unfit for marriage: nisarga, vadhri, irshyaka, sevyaka, vataretas, mukhebhaga and anyapati.  It further declares the remaining seven as possibly curable: paksha, abhisapad-guroh, rogat, deva-krodhat, aksipta, moghabija and salina.

The Ten Types of Nastriya

Women who are impotent with men are mentioned less frequently in Vedic literature; nevertheless, at least ten different types of nastriya or third-gender women can be found in various Sanskrit texts and are listed below.

1. Svairini—she engages in lovemaking with other women.
2. Kamini—she engages in lovemaking with both men and women.
3. Stripumsa—she is masculine in behavior and form.
4. Shandhi—she is averse to men and has no menstruation or breasts.
5. Narishandha—her womanhood is completely destroyed.
6. Varta—her female “seed” is afflicted in utero.
7. Sucivaktra or Sucimukhi—she has an extremely small, undeveloped vagina.
8. Vandhya—her menstruation is absent or suppressed.
9. Moghapuspa—her attempts to unite with the man are fruitless.
10. Putraghni—she has repeated miscarriages.

The svairini is described in the Kama Sutra (2.8); the kamini in the Bhagavata Purana (5.24.16); the stripumsa in the Mahabharata and various astrological texts; the shandhi, sucivaktra, vandhya and putraghni in the Sushruta Samhita (6.38); the shandhi, narishandha, varta, sucimukhi and putraghni in the Caraka Samhita (4.2; 4.4; 6.30), and the moghapuspa in various Sanskrit lexicons.  The first three types are physically capable of bearing children whereas the remaining seven are infertile.

General Terms

Throughout the Vedic canon we can find at least eight general and forty specific third-gender terms, which are listed below.  The first two entries refer to ordinary males and females and are cited for comparison.  

(1) Pums-prakriti—he is completely male by nature.
The word pums or purusha refers to first-gender men with complete male organs, hormones, viable reproductive systems, masculine identities and heterosexual orientation.  They further possess the male characteristics of strong muscles, bodily hairs, Adam’s apple, deep voice, a male torso and so on.  Their nature, behavior and mannerisms are predominantly masculine and they are sexually aroused by females.  The pums or purusha type of man typically marries a woman, successfully impregnates her and produces progeny.  According to the Sushruta and Caraka Samhitas, a pums or male child is produced when the male “seed” or sukra (reproductive fluids and hormones) predominates at the time of conception.  This occurs when the father is sexually healthy, greater in passion and engages in upasriptaka or normal copulation (the “man on top” position).

(2) Stri-prakriti—she is completely female by nature.
The word stri or prakriti refers to second-gender women with complete female organs, hormones, viable reproductive systems, feminine identities and heterosexual orientation.  They further possess the female characteristics of enlarged breasts and wide hips, slighter muscles, less bodily hairs, a higher voice and so on.  Their nature, behavior and mannerisms are predominantly feminine and they are sexually aroused by males.  The stri or prakriti type of woman typically marries a man, is impregnated by him and gives birth to children.  According to the Sushruta and Caraka Samhitas, a stri or female child is produced when the female “seed” or sonita (reproductive fluids and hormones) predominates at the time of conception.  This occurs when the mother is sexually healthy, greater in passion and engages in upasriptaka or normal copulation.

(3) Tritiya-prakriti—he or she has both male and female qualities by nature.
The word tritiya-prakriti refers to third-gender men and women with various combinations of the two natures described above.  It is especially used in the Kama Sutra to describe men and women who are homosexual or transgender by nature.  Such people appear as male or female and assume masculine or feminine identities but are impotent in terms of having no desire for the opposite sex.  Vedic texts assert that a third-gender child is produced when the “seed” of both parents is equal in quantity and quality at the time of conception.  This can occur naturally or it may be due to various conditions of the parents.  For instance, when the “seed” of both parents is equally dominant, a bisexual child is produced; when citrarata or exceptional types of copulation are employed, a homosexual or transgender child is likely, and if the “seed” is afflicted, the child will be sterile or intersexed.

(4) Napumsa—he is deficient in manhood.
The word napumsa or napumsaka refers to third-gender men with a critical deficiency in any of the male traits.  It is used in Vedic literature to denote men who are “not fully male,” impotent with women, effeminate, sterile, without male organs or otherwise of questionable manhood.  In his Jayamangala commentary, Yashodhara states that the homosexual men addressed in the Kama Sutra as tritiya-prakriti are also known as napumsaka.  The Caraka Samhita (4.2.17-21) lists eight specific types of napumsa that include the intersexed, homosexuals and transgenders.  A napumsa child is produced when the “seed” of both parents is equal in quantity and quality at the time of conception.  Additional factors such as previous life impressions, parental conditions and various afflictions within the womb further differentiate such third-gender offspring.

(5) Nastriya—she is deficient in womanhood.
The word nastriya refers to third-gender women with a critical deficiency in any of the female traits.  It is used in Vedic literature to denote women who are “not fully female,” impotent with men, masculine, barren, without female organs or otherwise of questionable womanhood.  At least ten different types of nastriya are mentioned throughout Sanskrit texts and said to be produced when the “seed” of both parents is equal in quantity and quality at the time of conception.  Additional factors such as previous life impressions, parental conditions and various afflictions within the womb further differentiate such third-gender offspring.

(6) Kliba—he is impotent with women by nature.
The word kliba or klibaka is the most common third-gender term found in Vedic literature.  It can refer to any type of impotent man but often specifically describes those who are effeminate or homosexual by nature.  Kliba is frequently used to disparage men considered weak, cowardly, unmanly, effete, of questionable manhood and so on.  The Sushruta Samhita (3.2.38-45) lists five specific types whereas the Kamatantra equates the term to any of the twenty shandha.  The five kliba cited by Sushruta are described in terms of homosexual, bisexual and transgender behavior.  They are produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused by various conditions of the parents.

(7) Panda—he is impotent with women for various reasons.
The term panda or pandaka refers to many types of men who are impotent with women for various reasons.  The Narada-smriti (12.8-18) lists fourteen specific types and describes all of their different symptoms and means of testing.  Of these, half are declared incurable and include homosexual and intersex types whereas the remaining seven are considered treatable.  In the Smriti-ratnavali’s list of the twenty types of shandha, the panda is specifically defined as a man whose penis does not respond to the touch of a woman.  In any case, if the panda remains impotent with women he is not considered marriageable by the Narada-smriti.

(8) Shandha—he has the qualities and behavior of a woman.
The term shandha or shandhaka is also commonly found in Vedic literature.  It can refer to any type of impotent man but often specifically describes male-to-female transgenders.  Both the Sushruta Samhita (3.2.42) and Smriti-ratnavali state that the shandha talks, walks, laughs and otherwise behaves like a woman.  The latter text lists twenty different types of shandha whereas the former mentions two basic characteristics: behaving like a woman and having no semen or male qualities.  The Caraka Samhita (4.2.17) similarly mentions two types of shandha: the narashandha whose manhood is completely destroyed and the vatika-shandha who is born without testicles.  The shandha is produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused when the parents assume the purushayita or “woman on top” position during intercourse.  Those born without semen or testicles are furthermore afflicted by the life-airs in utero.

(9) Svairini—she engages in lovemaking with other women.
The word svairini is the most common term used for homosexual women or lesbians in the Kama Sutra (2.8) but can refer to any type of “independent woman” whatsoever.  The Narada-smriti (12.49-52) mentions four basic types: 1) the wife who leaves her husband; 2) the widow who leaves her family; 3) the foreigner or slave, and 4) a woman who has been raped.  In regard to the svairini who is homosexual by nature, she is produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused by various conditions of the parents.

(10) Stripumsa—she is masculine in behavior and form.
The word stripumsa refers to many different types of women who are masculine in behavior and form.  Such women are strong-willed, averse to men and believed to have been males in their former lives.  The stripumsa is mentioned in Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata, Sanskrit lexicons and numerous astrological works.  She is produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused by various conditions of the parents.

Specific Terms

The forty terms listed below refer to specific third-gender types.  The first twenty-five are considered unfit for procreative marriage and nearly all of them are homosexual, transgender or intersex by nature (tritiya-prakriti).  The remaining fifteen types are viewed as possibly fit for marriage and involve bisexuality, acquired ailments or supernatural causes.

(1) Samskaravahi—he is aroused according to previous life impressions.
The samskaravahi type has sexual desires of a contrary nature and is consequently not aroused by the opposite sex.  This category includes homosexuals, transgenders and the five types of kliba mentioned by Sushruta.  According to the Caraka Samhita (4.2.19), the samskaravahi is produced according to previous life impressions (the man was a homosexual in his last life, or a woman, etc.) and when the channels of male arousal are permanently blocked by vayu in an embryo of equal “seed” conception.  Some commentators believe that in certain cases, such as bisexuality, the samskaravahi is treatable through penile enemas, powerful aphrodisiacs or drinking semen.  This is doubtful, however, since the Caraka Samhita declares all eight types of napumsa as inborn and incurable.  In any case, if the samskaravahi remains aroused only by contrary behavior he cannot be married to any woman.

(2) Mukhebhaga—he performs oral sex on men.
The mukhebhaga type uses his mouth (mukhe) to receive another man’s penis, just as a woman would use her vulva (bhaga).  This clearly refers to the homosexual and transgender men described in the Kama Sutra (2.9).  The mukhebhaga is produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused by various conditions of the parents; for instance, if the parents engage in oral sex prior to intercourse.  Some commentators interpret words such as mukhebhaga and saugandhika to include heterosexual acts but such men would obviously not be impotent with women.  Indeed, the Narada-smriti (12.15) declares the mukhebhaga incurable and unmarriageable under all circumstances.

(3) Asekya—he is aroused only by swallowing a man’s semen.
The asekya type is aroused only by swallowing the semen of other men.  The Smriti-ratnavali specifically uses the word “devour” to stress the man’s strong desire for such activity and the term itself comes from the Sanskrit aseka (“to water”) or asecana (“a vessel for holding fluids”).  The Sushruta Samhita (3.2.38, 45) states that the asekya obtains an erection only by “sucking the genitals and drinking the semen of another man.”  He is produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused when the father’s semen is scanty.  The asekya type is viewed exactly the same as the mukhebhaga in terms of curability and marriage.

(4) Kumbhika—he takes the passive role in anal sex.
The kumbhika type uses his buttocks (kumbha) to receive another man’s penis.  This clearly refers to homosexuals and transgenders and is listed in the Sushruta Samhita (3.2.40) among the inborn types of kliba.  Sushruta mentions that some kumbhikas perform the same act on women (indicating bisexuality) while others gain erections by drinking the semen of other men like an asekya (3.2.45).  The kumbhika type is produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused by various conditions of the parents; for instance, if they engage in anal sex prior to intercourse.  He is viewed exactly the same as the mukhebhaga in terms of curability and marriage.

(5) Saugandhika—he is aroused only by smelling the genitals of others.
The saugandhika type is aroused only by smelling the genitals of others and coming in close contact with them.  The Sushruta Samhita lists the saugandhika among the inborn types of kliba and mentions that he may also gain an erection by drinking the semen of other men like an asekya (3.2.39, 45).  The saugandhika is produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused when the mother’s womb is unclean at the time of conception.  He is viewed exactly the same as the mukhebhaga in terms of curability and marriage.

(6) Irshyaka—he is aroused only by the jealous feelings of seeing others in the act of sexual union.
(7) Irshyabhirati—same as above.
The irshyaka or irshyabhirati type becomes potent only when jealous feelings arise in him after seeing other people engaged in sexual intercourse; he is then able to perform.  His sexual potency depends on jealous or even angry feelings.  The Sushruta Samhita lists the irshyaka among the inborn types of kliba and mentions that he may also gain an erection by drinking the semen of other men like an asekya (3.2.41, 45).  The Caraka Samhita (4.2.20) states that the irshyabhirati is produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused when the parents harbor jealous feelings during intercourse.  The Narada-smriti (12.15) declares the irshyaka type incurable and unmarriageable for any woman.

(8) Sevyaka—he is sexually enjoyed by others.
The word sevya refers to a man who is sexually enjoyed by others.  Some commentators, such as eighth-century A.D. Bhavasvamin, interpret this word as “homosexual” whereas others define it as “a man whose potency is lost because of having too much sex with women.”  It can also refer to a bisexual man who, after sating himself with women, turns to other men.  In any case, the Narada-smriti (12.15) strongly asserts that the sevyaka type is incurable and unmarriageable for any woman.

(9) Anyapati—he copulates with things or beings other than women.
The anyapati type has sexual intercourse in ways other than with women and includes all varieties of sexual orientations and psychological fetishes.  Alternatively, some commentators interpret this word to mean that the man is deeply in love with another and consequently only potent with him or her.  In any case, the anyapati type is not considered curable or marriageable by the Narada-smriti (12.18).

(10) Narashandha—his manhood is completely destroyed.
(11) Narishandha—her womanhood is completely destroyed.
These two types refer to people whose manhood or womanhood has been completely destroyed.  The narashandha is either completely effeminate by nature or he may actually have no semen or sperm; similarly, the narishandha is either completely masculine by nature or she may actually have no menstruation or ovum.  The former transgender types are produced according to previous life impressions along with an equal “seed” conception caused when the parents assume the “woman on top” position during intercourse (Sushruta Samhita 3.2.42-43).  The latter intersex types are produced when the equal “seed” conception is caused by a lack of sexual drive and some deficiency in the reproductive fluids of both parents (Caraka Samhita 4.2.19).  In each case, the narashandha and narishandha types are considered incurable and unfit for marriage.

(12) Baddha—he has no testicles.
(13) Vadhri—his testicles have been cut out.
(14) Vatika—he is born without testicles.
These three types of third-gender men are either born without testicles or their testicles have been cut out.  They include intersex conditions as well as men who have had their testicles removed for various reasons (personal, medical, criminal, etc.).  The vatika type is specifically described as inborn and produced when the testicles of an embryo of equal “seed” conception are destroyed by afflicted life-airs (vayu) and life-fires (agni) in utero (Caraka Samhita 4.2.21).  The vadhri type is considered incurable and unfit for marriage by the Narada-smriti (12.14) and the baddha and vatika types are viewed exactly the same way.

(15) Vataretas—he has no discharge of semen.
Literally, “wind or air semen.”  The man achieves an erection and reaches orgasm but there is no emission of semen (only air).  This can refer to various physical conditions such as intersex, retrograde ejaculation, dry orgasm, and so on.  Some commentators interpret vataretas as a man having premature ejaculation (the semen is “lost to the wind”) but this is unlikely since the vataretas is declared incurable and premature ejaculation is typically temporary.  Indeed, the Narada-smriti (12.15) strongly forbids the vataretas type from marrying any woman.

(16) Pavanendriya—he has no discharge of semen.
The pavanendriya type also has no discharge of semen.  According to the Caraka Samhita (4.2.18), this type is inborn and produced when the seminal regions of an embryo of equal “seed” conception are afflicted by the life-airs.  Since pava means “wind or air” and indriya can be interpreted as “semen,” the pavanendriya type is usually considered identical to the vataretas and viewed the same in terms of curability and marriage.

(17) Nisarga—he is born without proper genitals.
The nisarga type refers to people recognized as impotent at birth, i.e., those born with absent or unusually formed genitals due to intersex or other causes.  The term nisarga implies that the person is physically distorted by nature.  Such third-gender types are not considered curable or fit for marriage according to the Narada-smriti (12.14).

(18) Vakri—his penis is severely curved or deformed.
The vakri type refers to men born with a severely curved or deformed penis.  This usually involves chronic curvature of the penis or a drastically misplaced pee-hole.  According to the Caraka Samhita (4.2.20), the vakri is produced by an equal “seed” conception caused when complicated postures are assumed during intercourse and the father’s semen is weak.  The vakri type is considered incurable and unfit for marriage. 

(19) Dviretas—he has both male and female “seed.”
The dviretas type describes people born with both male and female genitals, reproductive fluids and hormones.  It is typically recognized at birth and was formerly known as “hermaphroditism.”  According to the Caraka Samhita (4.2.18), the dviretas is produced when an embryo of equal “seed” conception contains both the male and female reproductive material and becomes afflicted in utero.  The dviretas type is viewed exactly the same as the nisarga in terms of curability and marriage.

(20) Trnaputrika—his male “seed” is afflicted in utero.
(21) Varta—her female “seed” is afflicted in utero.
The trnaputrika and varta types refer to men and women who are sterile or develop mixed physical traits (intersex).  According to the Caraka Samhita (4.4.31), such conditions are caused when the “seed” of one or both parents (especially the mother) is afflicted and transferred to the child at the time of conception.  When the essential components of the sperm or ovum (bijabhaga or chromosomes) are afflicted, the child becomes sterile and when minute fractions of the bijabhaga (bijabhagavayava or genes) are afflicted, the child becomes either sterile or intersex.  The trnaputrika and varta types are viewed exactly the same as the nisarga in terms of curability and marriage.

(22) Shandhi—she is averse to men and has no menstruation or breasts.
The shandhi type of woman is mentioned in the Sushruta Samhita (6.38.8) as having no menstruation or breasts.  Similarly, the Caraka Samhita (6.30.34) describes the shandhi as a woman who is “averse to males and with no breasts.”  The shandhi is produced when a female embryo of equal “seed” conception is afflicted by the life-airs in utero.  Alternatively, this term can also refer to a female shandha with the qualities and behavior of a man.  Such a female shandha is described in the Sushruta Samhita (3.2.43) and mentioned in the Caraka Samhita (4.2.18) as narishandha.  In either case, the shandhi is considered incurable and unmarriageable.

(23) Sucivaktra—she has an extremely small, undeveloped vagina.
(24) Sucimukhi—same as above.
Both of these terms are literally translated as “needle-eyed opening or vulva.”  The sucivaktra woman is described in the Sushruta Samhita (6.38.8) as having an extremely constricted and undeveloped vagina from birth.  According to the Caraka Samhita (6.30.31), the sucimukhi type is caused when vayu afflicts a female embryo in the womb, causing her vaginal tract to remain undeveloped and minute.  Both are identical and viewed exactly the same as the nisarga in terms of curability and marriage.

(25) Nasta—he is without sperm due to disease.
The nasta type refers to a man left permanently impotent or sterile after contracting venereal disease or some other illness.  He was once virile but now his reproductive organs and sperm are completely destroyed.  In general, the nasta indicates a diseased man (rogat) who has failed to regain his potency after one year of treatment.  Such a man is deemed incurable and unfit for marriage.

(26) Kami—he engages in lovemaking with both women and men.
(27) Kamini—she engages in lovemaking with both men and women.
The words kami and kamini refer to men and women who are very sensuous and fond of lovemaking.  Those with a third-gender nature are bisexual and simultaneously attracted to both sexes.  Neither type is considered impotent (quite the contrary) but they are third-gender in the sense that they have both male and female sex attraction (dvikama).  The kami and kamini are produced according to previous life impressions and an equal “seed” conception caused when the reproductive fluids and hormones of both parents are equally profuse.  Most are heterosexually married with children and engage in homosexual relationships on the side.  No injunctions prohibit these types from marriage as long as they are able to satisfy their spouses and produce offspring.

(28) Paksha—he is periodically impotent with women (every other fortnight, month, etc.)
The paksha type is difficult to detect and interpreted variously.  The man is “half potent” (sometimes potent and sometimes not).  This can refer to bisexuals who are sometimes potent with women and sometimes with men or to those whose sexual potency otherwise comes and goes.  Some commentators interpret this word literally, meaning that the man is impotent “every other fortnight.”  In any case, the Narada-smriti (12.14) states that a paksha should be retested after one month; if he remains impotent, he cannot be married to any woman.

(29) Salina—he is too shy or inhibited to even approach women.
In the case of the salina type, the man cannot attempt intercourse with the woman due to excessive shyness.  This is clearly psychological unless he is secretly homosexual.  The woman is encouraged to try arousing the salina by all possible means; if she cannot get him to unite with her after one year, he should be abandoned (Narada-smriti 12.17).

(30) Rogat—he is diseased (which may pass).
The term rogat refers to men who were previously virile but are now physically diseased and consequently impotent.  The affliction may be temporary or permanent in nature and requires further analysis.  Several chapters within the Sushruta and Caraka Samhitas analyze and treat diseases of the male and female reproductive organs in great detail.  The rogat type should be retested after one year; if he remains impotent, he is considered permanently diseased (nasta) and cannot be married to any woman (Narada-smriti 12.14).

(31) Aksipta—his semen is deficient or does not discharge properly.
The aksipta type does not discharge his semen properly or it is deficient in some way.  The semen may be insufficient in quantity or appear watery, discolored, lumpy and odorous.  There may also be premature ejaculation or the ejaculation is slow and difficult.  Some commentators interpret aksipta to mean that the man is unable to ejaculate at all.  This is unlikely, however, since the word itself means “to cast off” or “throw out.”  In any case, the aksipta type should be retested after one year; if his semen remains deficient or does not discharge properly, he cannot be married to the woman (Narada-smriti 12.16).

(32) Moghabija—his attempts to unite with the woman are fruitless.
The moghabija type is impotent or “fruitless” when he attempts to unite with the woman.  Such a man either cannot complete intercourse with the woman or, if he does, there is no resulting pregnancy.  Most commentators interpret moghabija to mean that the man has semen but it is sterile and thus ineffective in the womb.  In any case, the moghabija type is considered curable and may be retested after one year (Narada-smriti 12.16).

(33) Kilaka—he penetrates the woman using another man or some instrument.
The kilaka type can only penetrate the woman after first uniting her with another man or with the help of some instrument (a dildo or apadravya).  According to most commentators, the kilaka’s penis is injured or broken and requires assistance or some kind of device for support.  Alternatively, the man is aroused by seeing the woman with other men and is brought to sexual potency only by bringing them together.  In any case, the kilaka should be retested after one month; if his potency remains dependent on another man or some device, he cannot be married.

(34) Stabdha—his penis is paralyzed, with no sperm.
The man’s penis is completely paralyzed and lifeless without any sign of arousal or seminal fluid.  This generally indicates a serious condition of impotence associated with complete erectile dysfunction.  If the stabdha type remains unable to achieve an erection after one year, he is not fit to marry any woman.

(35) Moghapuspa—her attempts to unite with the man are fruitless.
The moghapuspa type of woman is the female counterpart to the moghabija.  Her attempts to unite with the man are “fruitless,” meaning she cannot bring herself to be penetrated by the man or, if she does, there is no resulting pregnancy.  Most commentators interpret moghapuspa to mean that the woman has menstruation but is unable to conceive.  In any case, the moghapuspa type may be treated for ten years from marriage; beyond that, the husband may dismiss her and take another wife (Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2.4.6).

(36) Putraghni—she has repeated miscarriages.
Literally, the woman’s womb “burns up her offspring.”  The putraghni type is described in both the Sushruta (6.38.6) and Caraka (6.30.28) Samhitas and produced when vayu afflicts the woman’s reproductive system, causing excessive bleeding along with repeated miscarriages during pregnancy.  The putraghni type is considered curable in some cases by both texts; however, if she is unable to conceive a child after ten years the husband may dismiss her and take another wife.

(37) Vandhya—her menstruation is absent or suppressed.
The vandhya type of woman is described as infertile or completely barren.  According to the Sushruta Samhita (6.38.4-5), the womb of such a woman has been afflicted by vayu and is marked by a suppression or complete absence of menstruation.  The vandhya type may be either inborn or acquired.  The acquired types are considered curable up to ten years but are otherwise declared inborn and incurable.

(38) Sapadi—he is unable to enjoy sex due to the power of a curse.
(39) Abhisapad-guroh—he is impotent due to the guru’s curse.
(40) Deva-krodhat—he is impotent due to a god’s anger.
These three types of third-gender men are impotent due to a curse, the guru’s imprecation or a god’s anger and clearly belong to the supernatural variety.  They are found here and there throughout the Vedic canon—for instance, when the celestial courtesan, Urvasi, curses Arjuna to become a member of the third sex in the Mahabharata.  According to the Narada-smriti (12.14), such men should be tested one year after the curse has taken effect; if they remain impotent, they cannot be married to any woman.

The Ten Causes of Gender

Both the Sushruta and Caraka Samhitas provide elaborate descriptions regarding how and why living entities take birth as male, female or third gender.  Such descriptions can be summarized into the ten contributing factors listed below.  In many cases, several or even most of these factors will be involved to some degree.

1. Samskara—previous life impressions.
2. Kama—desire.
3. Sukarma—good karma.
4. Vikarma—bad karma.
5. Sukra-bala—strength of “seed.”
6. Mithuna-vidhi—method of copulation.
7. Paurusha—the personal efforts of the parents.
8. Dosha—affliction.
9. Prakriti—nature.
10. Daiva—divine ordinance.

1) Samskara—previous life impressions.
According to Vedic teachings, the living entity is eternal and experiences innumerable lifetimes until achieving final emancipation.  Thus, every newborn person comes with a complete package of previous life impressions, desires and activities known as samskaras.  Based on these, the living entity takes birth as male, female or third gender. 

2) Kama—desire.
Every living being has kama or innumerable desires as part of the previous life impressions or samskaras mentioned above.  When the living entity desires to experience a lifetime as male, female or third gender, such a lifetime comes to pass.

3) Sukarma—good karma. 
When the living entity takes birth as male, female or third gender according to desire, such a birth is said to be the result of previous good deeds or sukarma.  A birth due to sukarma is evident when the person is happy with the awarded birth and resides in a setting where he or she is treated kindly.  Such a person is furthermore endowed with auspicious qualities such as beauty, good health, strength, wealth, talent, intelligence, good parentage, righteousness, renunciation, religiosity, and so on.

4) Vikarma—bad karma.  
When the living entity is forced to take birth as male, female or third gender against all desire, such a birth is said to be the result of previous misdeeds or vikarma.  A birth due to vikarma is evident when the person is unhappy with the awarded birth and resides in a setting where he or she is treated harshly.  Such a person is furthermore endowed with inauspicious qualities such as ugliness, ill health, weakness, poverty, lack of talent, foolishness, bad parentage, unrighteousness, excessive attachment, irreligiosity, and so on.

5) Sukra-bala—strength of “seed.”
According to the quantity and the quality of the parents’ “seed” at the time of conception, a child is conceived as male, female or third sex.  When the father’s sukra or male sexual fluids predominate, a male is produced and when the mother’s sonita or female sexual fluids predominate, the child will be female.  If both are equal, the offspring will be of the third sex.  Such equal “seed” conceptions are further distinguished as follows: When the “seed” is exactly equal and afflicted, the child will be sterile or have both male and female physical characteristics; when the “seed” is mostly equal but slightly more in terms of the male or female, a third-gender boy or girl will be born respectively, and when the “seed” is mostly equal due to the profuse quantity and strength of both parents, a bisexual child is born.  Thus, according to the bala or strength of the parents’ sukra and sonita, various types of male, female and third-gender offspring are produced.

6) Mithuna-vidhi—method of copulation.
According to Vedic science, the mithuna-vidhi or method of copulation can also determine a child’s gender by affecting the parents’ “seed” and attracting specific types of living entities to the womb.  When upasriptaka or normal copulation is employed, the child will be either male or female but if citrarata or exceptional copulation is engaged in, a third-gender child will likely be the result.  Such exceptional methods of copulation are further distinguished as follows: When the parents assume the purushayita or “woman on top” position, the offspring will be a male or female shandha who behaves like the opposite sex; when the wife assumes a complicated position during intercourse and the husband’s semen is weak, the child born will be a vakri with a deformed male organ; when the wife performs oral sex on her husband prior to intercourse and a son is conceived, that boy will be a mukhebhaga who performs oral sex on men, and if the husband performs oral sex on his wife prior to intercourse and a daughter is conceived, that girl will be a svairini who makes love to women.  Thus, according to the parents’ mithuna-vidhi or method of copulation, various types of male, female and third-gender offspring are produced.

7) Paurusha—the personal efforts of the parents.
Parents generally desire heterosexual offspring—especially sons—and Vedic texts offer many helpful practices to assist them in this regard.  The parents should keep good sexual health, take invigorating tonics, refrain from overindulgence, assume the upasriptaka or “man on top” position during intercourse, follow proper timing, observe prescribed rituals, consult astrologers, propitiate the gods and so on.  At the time of conception, the consciousness of the parents should be peaceful and pure; they must have passion but not excessive lust, anger or detrimental feelings such as jealousy.  In this way, the parents should apply personal effort or paurusha to conceive the offspring they desire.      

8) Dosha—affliction.
Due to previous misdeeds and despite the best efforts of the parents, various afflictions or doshas can arise that result in the birth of sterile or malformed offspring.  The word dosha refers to afflictions caused by some imbalance or aggravation of the three bodily substances known as vata, pitta and kapha (also called doshas).  When afflictions occur in the sex organs, reproductive fluids, hormones, chromosomes or genes of either the parents or embryo of any sex, offspring are consequently born sterile or sexually malformed to various degrees.                 

9) Prakriti—nature.
When all of the above considerations are taken together they result in the aggregate factor known as prakriti or nature.  The workings of material nature are subtle and mysterious yet grossly powerful.  According to the stringent laws of prakriti, all living entities are forcibly born among the three genders in a series of countless lifetimes.           

10) Daiva—divine ordinance.
The ultimate factor in regard to cause of gender is daiva or divine ordinance.  Indeed, the laws of nature work according to God’s will and cannot be overruled.  It is therefore daiva or divine ordinance that ultimately determines which of the three genders a living entity assumes.  The various supernatural causes such as being cursed or blessed by a demigod or saintly person are also included within this category.

Spiritual Gender.  According to Vaishnava teachings, the soul itself possesses an inherent spiritual form and gender that lies completely dormant during worldly existence.  This innate spiritual gender has no bearing on a person’s present physical or psychological sex and remains unmanifest even in the state of impersonal Brahman realization.  Spiritual gender—in full variegatedness—awakens only at the highest levels of devotional attainment and reflects the living entity’s pure desire to serve and interact with God in the spiritual world.

Vedic Testing For Impotence

Vedic testing for male impotence involves five basic steps: 1) a study of the man’s astrological chart; 2) an overall physical examination; 3) an observation of his sexual interaction with women; 4) urination testing, and 5) an examination of his stools.  There are different versions of this test but a general description is as follows:

The prospective groom’s astrological chart is first examined and if the parents of a girl about to be married have doubts regarding his potency, they hire a respected physician to thoroughly test him.  The physician checks for masculine features such as a strong back, neck, shoulders, arms, torso, thighs, etc. along with the presence of good knees, bones, hair and skin.  The penis, testicles, mouth and anus are also examined for unusual or defective signs and the man’s gait, voice and mannerisms should all be distinctly masculine.

Once the physical examination has been passed, the groom is next handed over to a professional courtesan who is thoroughly familiar with all types of men, learned in the Kama Shastra and accompanied by her retinue.  With the parents’ permission, she tests the man’s erection along with his ability to penetrate and climax with any of her girls.  After successfully completing the task, his stream of urination is examined and must be seen as noisy and foamy.  The man’s stool thereafter should also sink in water.  The prospective groom is then declared fully virile to the parents and eligible to marry their daughter.

On the other hand, if the man exhibits any sign of weakness or failure with the girl, the courtesan employs various methods to ascertain his exact type of impotence.  If she suspects he may be homosexual, she calls in a professional male prostitute to further test him.  If she suspects some physical condition or disease, the physician is called back in.  Based on her findings, the courtesan either declares the groom hopelessly impotent with women or suggests retesting him after a certain period of time.

Lady physicians and astrologers similarly conduct fertility tests on women, carefully examining them for favorable signs of feminine behavior and health.  Vedic astrological texts such as the Brihat Parasara Hora Sastra (80-82) provide detailed lists of female attributes, both physical and astrological, which help determine the status of any girl’s fertility.  Among all of the physical attributes listed, the feet, hips, sexual organ, abdomen, breasts, neck and mouth are especially examined for favorable signs.  In Vedic culture, girls were generally married off at a very early age (typically between eight and twelve years old) and encouraged to bear children immediately upon reaching puberty.  Dharma Shastra texts such as the Narada-smriti (12.25-27) attribute great sin to a father who does not get his daughter married prior to her coming of age.  Other texts such as the Baudhayana Dharmasutra (4.1.12) extend the time limit to three years after puberty if the girl has no suitors; beyond this, she may select any husband of her own accord.  Girls that are completely barren, excessively masculine or otherwise of the third gender, however, are exempt from all such marital considerations.